General Division of the High Court · Decided 15 July 2026

The court found no breach of natural justice in the arbitration award being challenged

DSS v DST

[2026] SGHC 145Case no. Originating Application No 1061 of 2025

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Laws this judgment relies on

International Arbitration Act 1994

Grounds of decision

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[1] This judgment concerns an application to set aside the second partial final award (“Award”) issued in an arbitration between [DSS] (“Claimant”) and [DST] (“Defendant”) for alleged breaches of natural justice under s 24(b) of the International Arbitration Act 1994 (2020 Rev Ed) (“IAA”).
[2] The background to the parties’ dispute was a series of time charterparties in respect of a particular vessel (“Vessel”), which gave rise to two separate but related arbitrations. The first arbitration (“Head Reference”) was between the owner of the Vessel (“Owner”) and the Defendant, the head charterer of the Vessel. The second arbitration (“Sub-Reference”) was, in turn, between the Defendant and the Claimant, the subcharterer of the Vessel. While separate tribunals were constituted, the arbitrations were heard concurrently, with both tribunals sitting together. Separate awards were issued by each tribunal.
[3] As it was, there were substantial similarities between the award issued in the Head Reference (“Head Award”) and the Award, which was issued in the Sub-Reference. Against this backdrop, the Claimant now alleges that the Award was rendered in breach of natural justice. The Claimant’s primary case is that the extent of the similarities between the awards would cause a fair-minded and informed observer to reasonably suspect that the tribunal in the Sub-Reference had prejudged the matter, which amounted to apparent bias. The Claimant also argues that the tribunal breached the fair hearing rule by deciding the issues in the Sub-Reference on a basis that was not contemplated by the parties, without giving them the opportunity to make submissions on it.
[4] Following the hearing, the General Division of the High Court released its decision in Public Prosecutor v Pek Lian Guan [2026] 3 SLR 1109 (“Pek Lian Guan”). While this was a Magistrate’s Appeal, Chief Justice Sundaresh Menon touched on broader issues of natural justice going beyond the criminal context. The decision clarified, among other things, the conceptual difference between breaches of the rule against bias and breaches of the fair hearing rule, as well as the applicable test for assessing breaches of the fair hearing rule in the judicial context. In particular, Pek Lian Guan addressed the aspect of the fair hearing rule that concerns whether the adjudicator properly applied his mind to the matters before him. While this was not specifically addressed in the Claimant’s initial submissions, the nature of its complaints overlapped with and engaged this aspect of the fair hearing rule. I therefore invited the parties to file further submissions on this particular aspect of the fair hearing rule and the potential implications of Pek Lian Guan in the arbitral context.
Background
The events leading up to the dispute
[6] The Vessel, which was owned by the Owner at all material times, was chartered to the Defendant under a time charterparty (“Head Charter”). The Defendant, in turn, sub-chartered the Vessel to the Claimant under a separate time charterparty (“Subcharter”). The terms of both charterparties were based on standard form contracts and were materially identical.
[7] The Claimant contracted with [Company B] to provide the Vessel as an offshore support vessel to support certain works being carried out by [Company B] for [Company C].
[8] The offshore works required a specialist gangway system to be installed aboard the Vessel. The gangway would serve as a walkway between the Vessel and a Floating Production Storage and Offloading Vessel (“FPSO”). This was essential to allow walk-to-work access for the workers from the Vessel to the FPSO. The gangway was installed prior to the delivery of the Vessel.
[9] The Vessel was thereafter duly delivered to the Claimant upon arrival at the [location redacted] (“Port”), prior to its intended deployment at the [location redacted] (“Site”).
[10] While the Vessel was moored at the Port, the gangway was connected to the FPSO. The gangway subsequently collided with the FPSO, which damaged the gangway and rendered it inoperable.
[11] The collision and the resulting inoperability of the gangway (“Incident”) led to disputes between the Owner, the Defendant and the Claimant over, among other things, the amount of hire payable under the Head Charter and Subcharter and damages for late redelivery of the Vessel.
The conduct of the arbitrations
[12] Following the Incident, the Owner commenced arbitration against the Defendant under the Head Charter. [Judge A] was appointed by agreement as the sole arbitrator in the Head Reference.
[13] The Defendant commenced arbitration shortly after against the Claimant under the Subcharter. A tribunal comprising three arbitrators was constituted in the Sub-Reference. They were: (a) [Judge B], appointed by the Claimant, (b) [Judge C], appointed by the Defendant; and (c) [Judge D], jointly appointed by [Judge B] and [Judge C] (collectively, “Tribunal”). [Judge D] was appointed as the presiding arbitrator in the Sub-Reference.
[14] The arbitrators in both the Head Reference and Sub-Reference were all eminent retired English judges. Both arbitrations were seated in Singapore and conducted under the rules of the Singapore Chamber of Maritime Arbitration in force as of 1 January 2022. The charterparties were governed by English law.
[16] While the Owner agreed to the application for concurrency, the Claimant objected to it initially. The Claimant eventually dropped its objection, and the parties proceeded to agree on the terms of the concurrency order.
[17] The terms of the final concurrency order (“Concurrency Order”) were as follows:
[18] The arbitrations were thereafter conducted in accordance with the terms of the Concurrency Order, with the tribunals sitting together and hearing all the evidence and arguments made by the parties. The arbitrations proceeded in three main tranches:
(a) The first tranche dealt with the preliminary issue of whether the various counterclaims brought by the Defendant and the Claimant were excluded by the Head Charter and Subcharter respectively. The tribunals heard the parties on this issue together, and separate partial awards were issued by each tribunal.
(b) The main tranche dealt with the remaining issues and took place over multiple days. The tribunals sat together and heard all the evidence and arguments of the parties concurrently.
(c) Following the main tranche, the parties were directed to address the tribunals on a number of additional issues by way of further written submissions (“Further Submissions Tranche”). Specifically, as regards the Sub-Reference, these issues concerned: (i) whether a standby rate of hire should apply as the relevant rate of hire in respect of certain periods of the Subcharter (“Standby Rate Issue”); and (ii) whether the reduced rate of hire under cl 44.1 of the Subcharter applied when the FPSO was not on site and turret moored (“Clause 44.1 Issue”).
The issuance of the Award
[19] During the Further Submissions Tranche, the Tribunal had, when it first requested further submissions on the Clause 44.1 Issue, indicated that it was minded to invite the parties in the Sub-Reference to file short submissions, upon publication of the Head Award, on whether the position under the Subcharter in relation to any point should be different. In response, the Defendant indicated that it was amenable to file further submissions, but requested that the release of the awards in the Head Reference and Sub-Reference be aligned.
[20] Subsequently, [Judge A] wrote on behalf of himself and the Tribunal to confirm that since the two awards would be issued simultaneously, the Tribunal would no longer be inviting submissions from the parties on the possible impact of the Head Award on the issues in the Sub-Reference.
[21] The Head Award was issued in June 2025. [Judge A] found substantially in favour of the Owner.
[22] Nine days later, the Tribunal issued the Award in the Sub-Reference, in which it found substantially in favour of the Defendant. Among other things, the Tribunal awarded the Defendant substantial damages for late redelivery of the Vessel and unpaid hire.
[23] In the Award, the Tribunal stated that although it “had the advantage of reading” the draft of the Head Award, the members of the Tribunal “exercised separate and independent judgment” in relation to the common issues arising in both arbitrations and ultimately “reached the same conclusions in relation to the common issues and largely for the same reasons”. This was stated as such:
[24] Shortly after the issuance of the Award, the Defendant sought to obtain interim relief arising from the Award in another jurisdiction. Those proceedings remain pending to date.
[25] On 25 September 2025, the Claimant applied to set aside the Award in Singapore, alleging that the Award was rendered in breach of natural justice.
The parties’ cases
The Claimant’s case
[26] The central plank of the Claimant’s case is that the process by which the Award was prepared showed that the Tribunal had prejudged the issues and that this amounted to apparent bias. The Claimant argues that the extent, nature and effect of the similarities between the Award and the Head Award would cause a fair-minded and informed observer to reasonably suspect that the Tribunal had approached the matter with a closed mind.
[27] Notably, the Claimant clarified at the hearing that it only took issue with the process by which the Award was prepared. It was not taking issue with the conduct of the arbitrations and whether it was in accordance with the terms of the Concurrency Order or as envisaged by the parties. In particular, its position was that even if inter-tribunal discussions were impliedly consented to, and the Tribunal were allowed to read the draft of the Head Award, the Tribunal would still be required to exercise its independent judgment and ensure that the Award was its own. That said, since the Claimant’s case was founded on apparent bias, not actual bias, there was no need to show that “there was a real danger that the [Tribunal] was in fact biased or had a closed mind”. The similarities between the Award and the Head Award had to be viewed from the perspective of a fair-minded and informed observer.
[28] As to the extent of the similarities between the two awards, the Claimant alleges that 108 out of the 211 paragraphs in the Award consisted of wholesale or substantial reproductions of excerpts from the Head Award. The Claimant argues that these reproductions are “not limited to recitations of uncontroversial procedural matters or common ground”, but instead “extend to findings of fact, legal analysis and reasoning on contested issues”. The similarities between the two awards, the short timeframe between the issuance of the awards, as well as the Tribunal’s express acknowledgment that it had the advantage of reading the draft of the Head Award (see [23] above), altogether suggest that the Tribunal had used the Head Award as a template for drafting the Award. Accordingly, relying primarily on the Court of Appeal’s decision in DJP v DJO [2025] 1 SLR 576 (“DJP”), the Claimant submits that a fair-minded and informed observer would have reasonably suspected that the Tribunal’s decision was improperly influenced by anchoring and confirmation bias.
[29] Aside from apparent bias, the Claimant also submits that the fair hearing rule was breached. By relying on the Head Award and using it as a template for the Award, the Tribunal had decided the Sub-Reference on a basis that was not contemplated by the parties, and upon which they did not have the opportunity to address or make submissions.
[30] The Claimant also submits that there was no waiver of its right to object to any breach of natural justice on the ground of apparent bias. Even if it did not object to the inter-tribunal discussions that took place throughout the hearings, the Claimant did not contemplate that the Tribunal would simply reproduce the analysis in the Head Award and put it forward as its own.
[31] As for the requirement of prejudice, the Claimant submits that where the alleged breach of natural justice is founded on apparent bias, this would infect the decision-making process of the Tribunal itself, such that prejudice may be readily inferred. Thus, it is not necessary for the Claimant to demonstrate how the outcome of the arbitrations may have differed if there was no breach.
The Defendant’s case
[32] The Defendant does not dispute that there were substantial similarities between the Award and the Head Award. However, the Defendant argues that the similarities between the awards do not amount to apparent bias on the part of the Tribunal.
[33] The Defendant contends that the similarities between the awards should be viewed in light of the terms of the Concurrency Order and the actual conduct of the arbitrations. The terms of the Concurrency Order, which the Claimant had agreed to, permitted inter-tribunal discussions. Such inter-tribunal discussions occurred throughout the entire course of the proceedings, without any objections being raised by the Claimant. In circumstances where the occurrence of inter-tribunal discussions was consented to, the Defendant contends that the existence of substantial similarities between the awards does not support the allegation of apparent bias.
[34] Further, although the Tribunal may have agreed with and adopted some of the findings in the Head Award, the Defendant submits that this did not suggest that the Tribunal had prejudged the issues in the Sub-Reference, for four main reasons:
(a) First, there was equality between the tribunals. They had access to the same materials and heard the same arguments. The tribunals were therefore equally placed, which distinguished the present case from the situation in DJP.
(b) Second, the Tribunal did not use the Head Award as a template. The Tribunal summarised the respective cases of the parties in the Sub-Reference in detail, and structured its analysis accordingly based on the way the parties had argued their cases.
(c) Third, the Tribunal was cognisant of the differences between the arguments raised in the Head Reference and those raised in the Sub-Reference. The Tribunal considered legal authorities that did not form part of the reasoning in the Head Award, and also referred to provisions of the Subcharter and witness testimony that were not relied upon in the Head Award. This showed that the Tribunal had exercised independent judgment and had not simply adopted the findings in the Head Award.
(d) Finally, while there were similarities between the awards, there were also substantial differences between the awards, which showed that the Tribunal did not abdicate its duty to consider the issues in the Sub-Reference independently and impartially.
[35] On the issue of waiver, the Defendant submits that the Claimant waived its right to object on the ground of apparent bias by failing to object in time to the inter-tribunal discussions that occurred during the course of the arbitrations. The allegation of apparent bias should have been raised before the tribunals, and having failed to do so, it was too late for the Claimant to raise this now.
[36] Finally, on the requirement of prejudice, the Defendant submits that the Claimant has not suffered any actual or real prejudice due to the alleged breach of natural justice. In cases involving an allegation of apparent bias, the focus is on whether there has been “any loss of confidence in the adjudicative process” as a result of the Tribunal’s failure to consider the issues sufficiently. This was not the case here. The Claimant could not identify any points that the Tribunal failed to consider, such that the outcome of the arbitration may have differed if those points had been considered. The Tribunal had considered the Claimant’s various submissions and even invited further submissions on certain issues.
Further submissions
[37] As noted above, I invited the parties to file further submissions on Pek Lian Guan, which was released only after I heard the parties orally. The parties were invited to address the following issues:
The Claimant’s further submissions
[38] The Claimant takes the position that the Tribunal also breached the fair hearing rule by failing to properly apply its mind to the issues, arguments and evidence in the Sub-Reference. The Claimant argues that the submissions made previously in support of apparent bias equally show that a fair-minded and informed observer would reasonably apprehend that the Tribunal did not properly apply its mind to the matters in the Sub-Reference.
[39] The Claimant submits that it is not barred from relying on this aspect of the fair hearing rule to set aside the Award at this stage of the proceedings. This is because the factual basis on which it relies is the same, and was contained in the original supporting affidavit.
[40] As to the applicable test, the Claimant submits that the test of reasonable suspicion, which was held in Pek Lian Guan to apply to the fair hearing rule in the judicial context, should also apply in the arbitral context. This is because the rationale that justice must not only be done but must be seen to be done applies equally to complaints under the rule against bias and the fair hearing rule. The requirement of prejudice in the arbitral context is a sufficient safeguard against complaints of natural justice.
The Defendant’s further submissions
[41] The Defendant submits that the Claimant should not be allowed to raise the argument that the Tribunal did not properly apply its mind to the matters in the Sub-Reference at this stage of the proceedings. This particular aspect of the fair hearing rule was not identified in the Claimant’s supporting affidavit, and the Claimant relied on a different aspect of the fair hearing rule in its original submissions. The Claimant should be required to file a further affidavit to set out the additional grounds on which it relies, and the Defendant should have the opportunity to respond by way of a further affidavit as well.
[42] As to the applicable test, the Defendant takes the position that the test of reasonable suspicion should not be extended to the arbitral context. This is because the public interest in safeguarding the administration of justice does not apply in the context of arbitration, which is essentially a private and consensual mode of dispute resolution. Applying the threshold of reasonable suspicion would also be inconsistent with the case law, Parliament’s intent under s 24(b) of the IAA, and the judicial policy of minimal curial intervention in assessing breaches of natural justice.
[43] In any event, the Defendant submits that the Tribunal did not breach the fair hearing rule, whether on the threshold of reasonable suspicion or on the balance of probabilities. The Defendant relies on essentially the same points as in their previous submissions.
Issues to be determined
[44] As I indicated to the parties at the hearing, the manner in which the Claimant’s complaints were framed meant that the focus in this case would be on the similarities between the Award and the Head Award, rather than the conduct of the arbitrations themselves. Those similarities formed the basis of the various alleged breaches of natural justice and engaged both the rule against bias and the fair hearing rule. I therefore begin by characterising the nature of the Claimant’s complaints and situating those complaints within the rules of natural justice.
The applicable law
The rules of natural justice
[45] It is well-established that the two fundamental tenets of natural justice are that: (a) the adjudicator must be disinterested and unbiased (as expressed in the maxim nemo judex in causa sua); and (b) the parties must be given a proper opportunity to be heard (as expressed in the maxim audi alteram partem) (DJP at [36]). I refer to the former as the “rule against bias” and the latter as the “fair hearing rule”. Although the two are conceptually distinct, they are not mutually exclusive, and the same set of facts could give rise to a complaint on either basis or both (Pek Lian Guan at [62]). Depending on the nature of the allegation and the rule of natural justice engaged, the relevant considerations and consequences may differ. It is therefore of utmost importance that the particular and specific nature of the complaint be identified as far as possible, so that the analysis may be tailored accordingly (Pek Lian Guan at [45] and [102]).
[46] Indeed, as noted in DJP (at [40]), where the allegation is that an award has been substantially copied from another source, this may implicate either the rule against bias, the fair hearing rule or both. This is exemplified by the facts of DJP, where the primary allegation was that substantial parts of the award had been copied from awards in parallel arbitrations that involved similar facts and similar underlying contracts. While the same presiding arbitrator sat in all three arbitrations, the co-arbitrators in the impugned arbitration were not involved in the other parallel arbitrations (DJP at [18]). The concern was therefore that the extent to which the award in the impugned arbitration drew from the awards in the parallel arbitrations would give rise to a reasonable suspicion, on the part of a fair-minded and informed observer, that the tribunal had been impermissibly influenced by the decisions made in the parallel arbitrations, given the presiding arbitrator’s involvement in them (DJP at [70]). On the facts, the Court of Appeal found that the allegation of apparent bias had been made out, and the award was set aside on this basis.
[47] Aside from apparent bias, however, the Court of Appeal also considered another facet of the respondent’s complaint, which was targeted at the tribunal’s reliance on and reference to materials derived from the parallel arbitrations that the parties did not have the opportunity to address (DJP at [80]). This engaged an aspect of the fair hearing rule, namely, that an adjudicator must not decide a case on a basis that was not contemplated by the parties without at least giving them the opportunity to address those points (DJP at [39]). In the circumstances, the Court of Appeal concluded that there had been a breach of natural justice on this basis as well (DJP at [82]).
[48] The present case likewise involves an allegation that substantial parts of the Award had been copied or reproduced from the Head Award. In this regard, the Claimant has framed its complaint as one of apparent bias, namely, that the similarities between the awards would give rise to a reasonable apprehension or suspicion that the Tribunal, in preparing the Award, had prejudged the issues in the Sub-Reference and approached the matter with a closed mind. There are, however, some differences between the nature of the allegation of prejudgment in DJP and the present case which should be borne in mind.
(a) In DJP, the concern was that the presiding arbitrator, who sat in all three arbitrations, had been materially influenced by the decisions in the parallel arbitrations (at [70]). By the time the impugned arbitration was heard, the hearings in the parallel arbitrations had already concluded for the most part. The awards in the parallel arbitrations were also issued about three months before the impugned award (at [19]). There was thus a concern that the presiding arbitrator did not keep an open mind while hearing the impugned arbitration, because he had been influenced by the parallel arbitrations which had been heard and decided earlier (at [70]). The question was therefore whether there was a reasonable apprehension that “the decision-maker had reached a final and conclusive decision … before being made aware of all relevant evidence and arguments that the parties wished to present” (at [38]).
(b) In contrast, in the present case, the Head Reference and the Sub-Reference were heard concurrently, not sequentially. No complaint has been made in relation to the inter-tribunal discussions that took place or the conduct of the arbitrations more generally (see [27] above). It is not alleged that the Tribunal kept a closed mind while hearing the evidence and arguments presented by the parties. Rather, the allegation is that the Tribunal simply adopted wholesale the findings and analysis in the Head Award in deciding the issues in the Sub-Reference. This, in turn, would give rise to a reasonable apprehension or suspicion that the Tribunal had approached the issues in the Sub-Reference with a closed mind, in so far as the Tribunal was inclined or predisposed to resolve those issues in the same way as in the Head Award. The simple point I would highlight is that the timing of analysis differs slightly from that in DJP, in that the alleged prejudgment focuses on the drafting of the Award itself, after the parties had already been heard.
[49] This brings me to my next point. It was readily apparent from the way the Claimant initially presented its case that the alleged copying would also engage the fair hearing rule, quite apart from any concerns of prejudgment amounting to apparent bias. Specifically, the alleged copying would raise concerns as to whether the Tribunal properly applied its mind to the issues in dispute and to the submissions and evidence adduced by the parties. This is an aspect of the fair hearing rule, and is conceptually distinct from the rule against bias (DJP at [39]; Pek Lian Guan at [59] and [62]–[64]). This was made clear in the Claimant’s further submissions, in which the Claimant clarified that it was also challenging the Award on the ground that the Tribunal had not properly applied its mind to the matters in the Sub-Reference. In this regard, the Claimant relied on essentially the same arguments as those made in support of its allegation of apparent bias. This was unsurprising, given that both complaints were based on the alleged copying of the Head Award, and whether they are made out would turn on substantially the same material. That said, despite the obvious overlaps, both grounds of challenge are conceptually distinct and must be analysed separately (Pek Lian Guan at [68]).
[50] Aside from the above, there is yet another aspect of the fair hearing rule which is engaged in the present case, namely, that an arbitrator must not decide the case on a basis that was not contemplated by the parties without first giving them the opportunity to make submissions on it (DJP at [40]). This flows from the Claimant’s secondary complaint that the Tribunal had relied on the Head Award in deciding the issues in the Sub-Reference and used it as a template for drafting the Award, which was not contemplated by the parties and upon which they did not have the opportunity to make submissions (see [29] above). This is conceptually distinct from the Claimant’s primary complaint of apparent bias and the first aspect of the fair hearing rule mentioned above, and thus warrants separate consideration.
[51] To sum up, there are three ways in which the rules of natural justice may be said to have been breached in the present case:
(a) First, whether the alleged copying showed that the Tribunal had prejudged the issues in the Sub-Reference. This relates to the Claimant’s primary complaint of apparent bias (see [48]).
(b) Second, whether the alleged copying showed that the Tribunal had not properly applied its mind to the issues, arguments and evidence in the Sub-Reference. This relates to the first aspect of the fair hearing rule noted above, and was addressed in the parties’ further submissions (see [49]).
(c) Finally, whether the Tribunal had decided the Sub-Reference on a basis that was not contemplated by the parties (ie, by relying on the Head Award) without giving them the opportunity to make submissions on it. This relates to the second aspect of the fair hearing rule noted above (see [50]).
The test of reasonable suspicion
[52] Having situated the nature of the Claimant’s complaints within the rules of natural justice, I turn next to the applicable test for assessing each complaint.
[53] In the context of apparent bias, it is well-established that the assessment is to be conducted from the perspective of a fair-minded and informed observer of the public. It is not necessary for the court to be satisfied that there was a real danger that the decision-maker was in fact biased or had a closed mind. Rather, the question is whether the hypothetical observer would reasonably apprehend or suspect that the decision-maker had approached the matter with a closed mind and thereby prejudged the issues before him or her (DJP at [38]). The rationale for this is the principle that justice must not only be done, but it must also be seen to be done (DJP at [38]). The threshold of reasonable suspicion is lower than proof on a balance of probabilities and is satisfied if the hypothetical observer would think that bias is possible in the circumstances, which is assessed objectively (Pek Lian Guan at [106]). Among other things, the hypothetical observer will be taken to be aware of all relevant facts capable of being known by a member of the public, and to consider what has been seen or read together with its proper context (DJP at [38]). I will refer to this as the “test of reasonable suspicion”.
[54] That brings me to the applicable test in the context of an alleged breach of the fair hearing rule. In Pek Lian Guan, Menon CJ held that the test of reasonable suspicion would similarly apply to challenges based on the fair hearing rule (at [107]). This is because the underlying rationale that justice must not only be done but it must also be seen to be done so that public confidence in the administration of justice can be maintained applies with equal force to the fair hearing rule. There is therefore no principled basis to confine the test of reasonable suspicion to complaints of apparent bias (at [105]). The effect of this is that in the context of challenges to court decisions, the applicable test for determining whether there has been a breach of natural justice is the test of reasonable suspicion, regardless of whether the alleged breach engages the rule against bias or the fair hearing rule (at [123]).
[55] This raises the question as to whether the test of reasonable suspicion would similarly apply to alleged breaches of the fair hearing rule in the context of challenges to arbitral awards.
[56] There are, of course, some essential differences between litigation and arbitration. On the one hand, the private and confidential nature of arbitration means that arbitral tribunals are “not accountable to the public in the same way that the courts and judges are” (Pek Lian Guan at [83] and [133]). As the details of each arbitration and the reasoning contained in each award are confidential, breaches of natural justice in arbitration “generally do not have broader implications beyond the immediate parties” (Pek Lian Guan at [132]–[133], citing DJP at [54]). In the judicial context, however, the public nature of the proceedings means that breaches of natural justice may undermine public confidence in the administration of justice and in the legitimacy of the judicial system (Pek Lian Guan at [86] and [133]). It is this rationale of ensuring public confidence in the administration of justice that led the court in Pek Lian Guan to conclude that the test of reasonable suspicion, which emphasises the appearance of justice, should similarly apply to challenges based on the fair hearing rule (Pek Lian Guan at [107]–[108]). That this additional dimension of public accountability is absent in the arbitral context would seem to suggest that there is less justification for adopting the test of reasonable suspicion in assessing alleged breaches of the fair hearing rule in arbitration. The possibility that different standards may apply in the arbitral context has at least been alluded to by the Court of Appeal in CVV v CVB [2024] 1 SLR 32 at [33]–[34], in the context of an arbitral tribunal’s duty to give reasons, which is a separate aspect of the fair hearing rule that is not in issue here (see also Pek Lian Guan at [79]; DJP at [55]).
[57] On the other hand, it bears mentioning that parties to an arbitration are generally not afforded the right to an appeal, and it is not possible for the court to review the substantive merits of the tribunal’s decision (DJP at [48]; Pek Lian Guan at [46]–[48]). This emphasis on finality in the arbitral context means that “particular attention must be paid to the integrity of the process” (DJP at [49]). Adopting the less stringent test of reasonable suspicion would therefore help to safeguard the parties’ right to due process, which will often be the primary, or even the sole, means by which an award may be impugned (Pek Lian Guan at [48]).
[58] Having considered the parties’ further submissions on this issue, I have reached the conclusion that the test of reasonable suspicion should also apply in assessing alleged breaches of the fair hearing rule in the arbitral context. In my view, this follows logically from the rationale underlying the application of the test of reasonable suspicion in cases involving allegations of apparent bias. As explained in DJP (at [38]), the threshold of reasonable suspicion applies to give effect to the principle that justice must not only be done, but it must also be seen to be done. Thus, while arbitral tribunals may not be accountable to the public, this does not mean that the appearance of justice can be dispensed with. If the threshold of reasonable suspicion applies to allegations of apparent bias, the same threshold must surely apply to alleged breaches of the fair hearing rule. As noted in Pek Lian Guan (at [118]), the rule against bias and the fair hearing rule exist as co-equal pillars of procedural justice, and procedural justice must be done and seen to be done in both aspects. There is no logical justification for confining the test of reasonable suspicion to the rule against bias while applying a different test to the fair hearing rule. These observations apply with equal force in the arbitral context.
[59] The Defendant submits that adopting the lower threshold of reasonable suspicion would be inconsistent with Parliament’s purpose in enacting s 24(b) of the IAA and with the settled judicial policy of minimal curial intervention in the arbitral process, and that this may in turn encourage unmeritorious setting-aside applications. I do not accept this submission. In my view, such concerns are overstated, given the overriding requirement of prejudice, which operates as the “principal safeguard against unconstrained natural justice complaints” in the context of arbitration (Pek Lian Guan at [131]). This requires a complainant to establish not only that the rules of natural justice have been breached, but also that the breach could reasonably have made a difference to the outcome of the arbitration. While the lower threshold of reasonable suspicion may be more easily satisfied, the requirement of prejudice operates as a sufficient safeguard to filter out unmeritorious challenges.
[60] The Defendant also relies on the Singapore International Commercial Court’s decision in DOI v DOJ [2025] 4 SLR 657 (“DOI”). In DOI, the claimant alleged both apparent bias and breach of the fair hearing rule. In analysing the fair hearing rule, the court expressly noted that its “decision is not one of its own reasonable suspicion of bias in place of the reasonable suspicion of the observer, but one of itself coming to the conclusion that the Majority was biased because they decided the issues before them with a closed mind” (DOI at [135]). This suggests that the threshold of reasonable suspicion would not apply, and that the court must be satisfied on a balance of probabilities that the tribunal had in fact breached the fair hearing rule. However, as DOI was decided before Pek Lian Guan, the question of whether the test of reasonable suspicion applies to the fair hearing rule was not before the court, and the point was therefore not directly addressed.
[61] For these reasons, I hold that the test of reasonable suspicion applies to the fair hearing rule in the arbitral context as well.
The extent and nature of the reproduction or copying
[62] As explained above (see [51]), there are three ways in which the rules of natural justice may be said to have been breached in the present case. Regardless of whether the complaint is characterised as one of apparent bias or as a breach of the fair hearing rule, however, the factual basis for the Claimant’s complaint is the extent of the similarities between the Head Award and the Award, which the Claimant alleges is a byproduct of the Tribunal copying and reproducing the Head Award as its own. Thus, whether the complaints are made out would turn on the inferences that may be drawn from the copied material and the impression conveyed by the Award to a fair-minded and informed observer.
[63] In assessing the copied material, the following considerations should be borne in mind.
[64] As explained in DJP, where the source of the copied material is a related award, much will depend on the nature of the copied material and the degree of proximity between the underlying arbitration proceedings (at [43]). Thus, where the copied material consists of uncontested and uncontroversial matters, which are also relevant and appropriate in the context of the impugned arbitration, the copying may not be objectionable (at [44]). However, where the copied material relates to disputed facts or issues, or matters which are simply irrelevant to the impugned arbitration, such copying would clearly give rise to greater suspicion (at [44]).
[65] Similar considerations were highlighted in Pek Lian Guan in the context of the fair hearing rule. As regards the extent of copying, the court will consider not only how much has been copied, but also what has been copied. The copying of undisputed background facts or a party’s submissions to provide the context of that party’s case will typically give no cause for concern (at [156]). In contrast, where the copying relates to contested issues, this may suggest that the decision-maker may not have applied his or her mind properly to the parties’ arguments (at [156]). As regards the manner of copying, the reproduction of errors in the source material would be a relevant consideration, especially if the error is one of substance. It is also relevant to consider whether the decision contains internal contradictions or inconsistencies which are not explained (at [157]). While it is not necessary for the decision-maker to address every point raised by the parties, a failure to deal with decisive or material issues could indicate that there has been a breach of natural justice (at [158]–[160]). In the final assessment, the court should also consider the quality of the impugned decision as a whole (at [162]). As noted in DJP (at [67]), it would typically not be appropriate to assess each allegation of copying as “isolated breaches of natural justice to be considered in silos”. What is ultimately more important is the overall impression conveyed by the decision to a fair-minded and informed observer, and whether the cumulative effect of the extent, nature and manner of copying evinces an underlying failure in the process.
Concurrent arbitrations
[66] Before turning to the analysis of the Award, I first set out some brief observations on the conduct of concurrent arbitrations more generally.
[67] The parties did not point me to any case law addressing the conduct of concurrent arbitrations, and certainly not in the context of alleged breaches of natural justice. While concurrent arbitrations are a feature of many institutional rules today (see, eg, Rule 29.2 of the Arbitration Rules of the Singapore Chamber of Maritime Arbitration (4th edition, 1 January 2022); Rule 17 of the Arbitration Rules of the Singapore International Arbitration Centre (7th edition, 1 January 2025); Article 22A of the Arbitration Rules of the London Court of International Arbitration (1 October 2020); Rule 17(b) of the London Maritime Arbitrators Association Terms 2021) and are expressly provided for under certain legislation (see, eg, s 35 of the Arbitration Act 1996 (c 23) (UK) and s 26 of the Arbitration Act 2001 (2020 Rev Ed), but not under the IAA), these institutional rules and their accompanying materials offer limited guidance on how concurrent hearings should be conducted.
[68] As it was, this did not cause any difficulties in the present case, given the way the Claimant framed its case. As noted above (see [16]), while there may have been some initial reluctance, the Claimant ultimately agreed to the arbitrations being heard concurrently and did not object to the terms of the Concurrency Order. Thus, the process by which the arbitrations were heard was not in issue. The Claimant does not allege that the concurrent conduct of the hearings undermined the procedural fairness of the arbitrations. Rather, the complaint was targeted at the drafting of the Award itself.
[69] There has been some consideration of the value and benefit of concurrent arbitrations, including possibly the avoidance of inconsistent awards in related or connected matters (see generally Bernardo M Cremades & Ignacio Madalena, “Parallel Proceedings in International Arbitration” (2008) 24(4) Arbitration International 507 at 518; Anastasia Kalantzi, “Parallel Arbitral Proceedings: An Analysis of the Issue of Parallel Arbitrations in International Commercial Arbitration within the European Legal Space” (2023) 3 The Italian Review of International and Comparative Law 1 at 23–24). The issue is not at play in the present case, and thus any deeper examination will be left for another occasion.
[70] While concurrent hearings are not objectionable in themselves, issues of natural justice may readily arise if appropriate procedural safeguards are not put in place. In this regard, the following points should be noted:
(a) An agreement for the arbitrations to be heard concurrently, and even for inter-tribunal communications or discussions, does not amount to a consolidation of the proceedings or a merging of the tribunals. The arbitrations remain separate, and parties are entitled to expect that each tribunal will consider the issues before it independently.
(b) Separate awards should be issued, and it is imperative that each award reflects the tribunal’s own reasons for its decision. As far as possible, those reasons should be expressed in the tribunal’s own words. As the facts of the present case illustrate, similarities in the language used may give rise to a suspicion that the tribunal has not exercised independent judgment.
(c) Concurrent arbitrations will often involve common issues of fact or law, and it may well be the case that the tribunals arrive at the same conclusion for largely the same reasons. However, even if one tribunal agrees with the reasoning of the other, the impression conveyed to a fair-minded and informed observer may still be one of bias if there are no meaningful differences between the awards.
(d) To ensure compliance with the requirements of natural justice, it will be particularly important for each tribunal to identify and address any points specific to the arbitration before it. Where common reasons are adopted, the tribunal should also clearly distinguish in its award between its own reasoning and the reasoning in the related award with which it agrees.
The Claimant is not barred from relying on the first aspect of the fair hearing rule
[71] With the principles above in mind, I turn to the Defendant’s preliminary objection, which is that the Claimant should not be permitted to rely on the first aspect of the fair hearing rule, namely, that the Tribunal did not properly apply its mind to the matters in the Sub-Reference, given that this was only raised in the Claimant’s further submissions.
[72] It is trite that a party seeking to set aside an Award for breach of natural justice must identify which rule of natural justice was breached (Soh Beng Tee & Co Pte Ltd v Fairmount Development Pte Ltd [2007] 3 SLR(R) 86 (“Soh Beng Tee”) at [29]). To similar effect, O 48 r 2(4) of the Rules of Court 2021 (“ROC”) requires the “grounds in support of the application” and “any evidence relied on by the claimant” to be set out in the supporting affidavit.
[73] The Defendant argues that the Claimant is precluded from relying on the first aspect of the fair hearing rule, as the Claimant’s supporting affidavit only identified apparent bias as the basis on which it sought to set aside the Award. While the fair hearing rule was raised in the Claimant’s previous submissions, the complaint was targeted at the second aspect of the fair hearing rule, which is that the Tribunal had decided the issues in the Sub-Reference on a basis not contemplated by the parties without giving them the opportunity to address it. The Defendant contends that the Claimant should be required to file an affidavit setting out the new ground of challenge, and that the Defendant should in turn have the opportunity to respond by way of a further affidavit.
[74] The Defendant relies on the Court of Appeal’s decision in Prometheus Marine Pte Ltd v King, Ann Rita [2018] 1 SLR 1 (“Prometheus Marine”). In that case, the appellant had sought to raise allegations of fraud and non-pecuniary corruption against the arbitrator in the proceedings below. These allegations were raised for the first time in the appellant’s further submissions. Given the gravity of the allegations, the court below declined to consider these additional arguments unless an affidavit setting out their factual basis was produced, which the appellant ultimately failed to do (Prometheus Marine at [51]). On appeal, the Court of Appeal held that the court below was entirely correct in declining to hear these additional arguments in the absence of a further affidavit from the appellant setting out the evidence that it would rely on, as the procedural requirements under the Rules of Court (Cap 322, R 5, 2014 Rev Ed) had not been complied with (Prometheus Marine at [52]).
[75] In my view, the present case is clearly distinguishable from Prometheus Marine. The allegations of fraud and non-pecuniary corruption in Prometheus Marine were premised on a different factual basis from the other grounds relied on for setting aside. Further, given the serious nature of those allegations, they had to be clearly particularised. It was in those circumstances that the Court of Appeal held that a further affidavit would have been required. In contrast, the factual basis for the Claimant’s arguments on the first aspect of the fair hearing rule has been sufficiently set out in its supporting affidavit, and is identical to that relied on for its arguments on apparent bias. As noted in Pek Lian Guan (at [68]), while the two rules are conceptually distinct, they are “not mutually exclusive” and “the same set of facts could potentially found a complaint on either basis”. That is precisely the case here. The Claimant has relied on the same materials and raised essentially the same arguments in support of both grounds of setting aside. It has not been suggested that the Claimant raised any new factual allegations in its further submissions that would have required a response. I therefore find that a further affidavit would not be necessary, and the Claimant is permitted to rely on the first aspect of the fair hearing rule as an additional ground of setting aside.
[76] The procedural requirement under O 48 r 2(4) of the ROC does not preclude me from considering the additional arguments on the first aspect of the fair hearing rule. Although O 48 r 2(4)(a) of the ROC requires the “grounds in support of the application” to be stated, this does not require the claimant to set out the specific legal arguments that it will be making in its supporting affidavit. It is sufficient to set out the underlying factual basis for the complaints, leaving the legal arguments to be developed during submissions. As the Court of Appeal observed in Prometheus Marine (at [52]):
[78] Accordingly, the Claimant is permitted to rely on the first aspect of the fair hearing rule.
The Award was not rendered in breach of natural justice
[79] I turn to the alleged breaches of natural justice, which, as noted above (see [51]), may be categorised into three separate complaints.
[80] Having considered the parties’ submissions and further submissions, I am satisfied that there was no breach of natural justice, whether under the rule against bias or under either aspect of the fair hearing rule engaged in this case. I address each ground in turn.
There was no apparent bias
[81] I turn to the ground of apparent bias.
[82] The copied portions with which the Claimant takes issue generally relate to two main areas of the Award. These may be broadly categorised as follows:
[83] As a preliminary point, I note that the Tribunal pre-emptively declared in the Award that it had exercised independent judgment in deciding the issues in the Sub-Reference (see [23] above). This shows that the Tribunal was aware that the similarities between the Head Award and the Award might give rise to concerns. The Tribunal thus sought to forestall any allegations of breaches of natural justice from the outset. Of course, a bare declaration that the Tribunal exercised independent judgment would not be sufficient to address the concerns about apparent bias. As noted in BZV v BZW [2022] 3 SLR 447 (at [128]), such “general and self-serving” statements cannot operate in themselves to immunise an award against alleged breaches of natural justice (see also Pek Lian Guan at [161]). What is more important is the overall impression conveyed by the Award to a fair-minded and informed observer. If the copied portions are so substantial as to give rise to a suspicion of prejudgment, a bare statement to the contrary would do nothing to displace that suspicion.
[84] For completeness, while the introductory paragraphs of the Award were included in the Claimant’s table of comparison between the Award and the Head Award, these paragraphs were purely descriptive or factual in nature, and dealt entirely with uncontentious matters such as the relationship between the parties, the background to the dispute, the procedural history of the two arbitrations, the various claims, defences and counterclaims made by the parties, and the relevant provisions of the Subcharter. The Claimant rightly did not place much reliance on these paragraphs to support its allegation of apparent bias. As explained (see [64]–[65] above), such instances of copying would not cause a fair-minded and informed observer to harbour a suspicion that the Tribunal kept a closed mind in drafting the Award.
The facts as found by the Tribunal in the Sub-Reference
[85] The first section of the Award with which the Claimant takes issue is the section entitled “[t]he facts as found by the Tribunal in the Sub-Reference”. This consists of paragraphs 38 to 92 of the Award, which broadly correspond to paragraphs 34 to 84 of the Head Award.
[86] The Claimant argues that the reproduced material in this section was not limited to undisputed background facts or common ground, but instead extended to specific evaluative findings made in the Head Award. These factual findings were simply adopted wholesale by the Tribunal in the Award, which suggested that the Tribunal kept a closed mind in assessing the evidence before it.
[87] The Defendant accepts that there were portions within this section of the Award which contained the Tribunal’s findings of fact. However, these findings were minimal, and the impugned paragraphs largely consisted of recitations of undisputed facts. Thus, the similarities between the two awards in respect of this section do not give rise to an appearance of prejudgment.
(1) Undisputed background facts
[88] In my judgment, the impugned paragraphs in this section of the Award mostly related to undisputed background facts. While the Tribunal purported to set out its factual findings in this section of the Award, as evidenced by the title of the section, this was somewhat misleading, as most of the paragraphs did not actually contain the Tribunal’s findings of fact or its assessment of the evidence. Thus, the fact that many of the impugned paragraphs in this section were either identical or substantially similar to the corresponding paragraphs in the Head Award did not point towards a finding of apparent bias.
[89] To illustrate, the Tribunal outlined the following series of events in this section of the Award:
(a) The Tribunal first described the events which took place prior to the Incident. These included the delivery of the Vessel to the Defendant, the installation of the gangway by the Defendant, and the delivery of the Vessel to the Claimant upon its arrival at the Port.
(b) Next, the Tribunal outlined the chronology of events on the day before the Incident and on the day of the Incident itself. The Tribunal described how the connection of the gangway to the FPSO was tested while the Vessel remained moored at the Port for necessary works, and how the FPSO eventually collided with the gangway and damaged it.
(c) The Tribunal then considered the evidence of the Defendant’s representative on board (“Captain”). The Captain testified that he had raised concerns about the connection of the gangway to the FPSO while the Vessel remained at the Port and suggested taking various precautions to mitigate the risk of collision and damage. However, these concerns were ignored by the representatives of the other parties on board.
(d) The Tribunal then summarised the expert evidence adduced by the parties. While various expert reports were tendered initially, these were eventually consolidated into two joint reports, as there was a large measure of agreement between the experts. The joint reports considered the circumstances surrounding the Incident, the actions and responses of the relevant parties, and the likely causes of the collision.
(e) Finally, the Tribunal outlined the events which took place after the Incident. These included when the FPSO was eventually moved to the Site, and the arrangements made by the parties to proceed with the intended works on the FPSO in light of the damage to the gangway.
[90] It is evident from the above that while these matters were labelled as the Tribunal’s factual findings, they were, in reality, primarily descriptions of the series of events which took place before, during, and after the Incident. This was done in considerable detail, given the technical nature of the dispute. In doing so, the Tribunal relied on the available documentary evidence and the agreed expert evidence. For instance, the timeline of events as set out by the Tribunal above was agreed upon by the experts. These matters were therefore mostly undisputed. Where specific factual details were subject to conflicting evidence from the parties, such as when the FPSO was moved to the Site, these were easily resolved over the course of the proceedings. Other discrepancies between the parties’ evidence and the documentary evidence or the agreed expert evidence were also noted and resolved. In any event, I would note that these matters were ultimately not crucial to the resolution of the parties’ dispute, having regard to the Award as a whole.
[91] Thus, while the impugned paragraphs in this section of the Award were indeed identical or at least substantially similar to the corresponding paragraphs of the Head Award, there could generally be no complaint of apparent bias or of any closing of the mind on the part of the Tribunal. This portion of the Award mostly dealt with undisputed background facts. It was descriptive in nature and largely did not involve any exercise of judgment or assessment of the evidence by the Tribunal.
[92] It bears reiterating that the Head Reference and the Sub-Reference arose out of the same factual background. The background and the events surrounding the Incident were equally relevant to both proceedings. In that context, it would not, to my mind, be objectionable for the Tribunal to adopt similar language in recounting the events leading up to the dispute. A hypothetical observer, who is fully aware of these circumstances, would place little weight on the similarities between the awards in this section in assessing whether there was bias.
[93] It may be the case that if there are other aspects of the Award which are problematic, the copying of even undisputed background facts may compound the concern of prejudgment amounting to apparent bias. However, that was not the case here. In my view, the similarities in the impugned paragraphs did not infect or worsen the impact of the copying found in other parts of the Award. While the background facts provided the essential context to the disputed legal issues, they did not ultimately affect the determination of those issues.
[94] While the Claimant has not characterised this section of the Award as such, I find that it comprised mostly undisputed background facts, and the similarities between the two awards in respect of this section would not lead a fair-minded and informed observer to reasonably suspect that there was prejudgment amounting to apparent bias.
(2) The Tribunal’s findings of fact
[95] While this section of the Award was generally descriptive in nature and pertained to undisputed background facts, I accept that there were at least some factual findings made by the Tribunal in this section. The Defendant accepted this as well.
[96] As explained (see [64]–[65] above), where the copied material relates to contested facts, that would generally weigh more heavily on the mind of a fair-minded and informed observer in assessing whether there was bias. The reason for this is that such findings would require the tribunal to evaluate the evidence and exercise its judgment. The parties’ core expectation is for the tribunal to do so independently and with an open mind. Thus, where these findings are simply reproduced from another source, the impression that a fair-minded and informed observer would have is that the tribunal’s purported findings were plagued by a degree of anchoring and confirmation bias, in so far as the tribunal was inclined to make the same factual findings as in the source material (see DJP at [74]).
[97] Looking at the Award holistically, however, as the findings of fact in this section of the Award were not very extensive, the hypothetical observer would not harbour a reasonable suspicion that the Tribunal approached the evidence in the Sub-Reference with a closed mind or that the Tribunal was predisposed to make the same factual findings as in the Head Award.
[98] For example, in describing the Captain’s evidence, there were instances where the Tribunal went beyond mere description and evaluated the quality of his evidence, before going on to state the conclusions that could be drawn from it. These are set out in the table below, with the evaluative portions highlighted in bold and underline:
[99] There were also instances where the Tribunal purported to draw certain inferences or conclusions from the evidence, as set out in the table below:
[100] Thus, in the course of recounting the evidence, the Tribunal did at times go beyond mere description. The Tribunal characterised the Captain’s evidence as “impressive”, and made findings on the interactions between the Captain and the other personnel on board the Vessel, namely, that the Captain did not give or purport to give instructions and only confined himself to giving advice. The Tribunal also drew certain inferences in relation to the circumstances in which the gangway was reconnected to the FPSO, which resulted in the collision.
[101] These factual findings by the Tribunal were worded in identical terms to the corresponding portions of the Head Award. Having regard to the principles in DJP and Pek Lian Guan (see [64]–[65] above), these would, at first glance, raise concerns as to whether the Tribunal had truly evaluated the evidence with an open mind, as opposed to simply being predisposed to make the same factual findings as in the Head Award.
[102] Against this, however, are the other instances of alleged factual findings relied on by the Claimant which, in my view, do not actually constitute as such. As set out below, the Claimant argues that these statements by the Tribunal also constituted evaluative findings which pointed towards apparent bias:
[103] I do not accept the Claimant’s characterisation of these other statements as evaluative findings. In my view, these statements were primarily descriptive in nature, whereby the Tribunal recounted the evidence adduced by the parties. They fell within the type of copied material that would not give rise to much concern from a fair-minded and informed observer’s perspective. The language used, or indeed, adopted from the Head Award, may have given some additional colour to the series of events which was not entirely necessary, but that did not affect the Tribunal’s reasoning or its key factual findings.
[104] Ultimately, the essential question is whether a fair-minded and informed observer would reasonably suspect that the Tribunal did not keep an open mind in assessing the evidence and was predisposed to making the same findings of fact as in the Head Award. Taking the allegations as a whole, I do not find that the extent and nature of the copying would give rise to such a suspicion.
[105] First, as regards the extent of the copying, I find that most of the copied material did not actually relate to the Tribunal’s findings on contested facts. As explained, many of the statements relied on by the Claimant were not actually evaluative in nature, but rather, descriptive. Thus, while there were substantial similarities between the two awards, the extent of copying had to be viewed in that light. The copying in relation to the Tribunal’s findings on contested facts, which would weigh most heavily on the mind of a hypothetical observer, formed only a minor part of this section. Viewing the Award as a whole, that would not be sufficient to give rise to a reasonable suspicion of apparent bias.
[106] Second, I would emphasise again that the present case involved a series of time charterparties concerning the same vessel. The disputes under the Head Charter and Subcharter arose out of the same factual matrix and circumstances. The claims that were made revolved around materially the same clauses as well. There was thus considerable overlap in the legal and factual issues between the Head Reference and the Sub-Reference. The tribunals also heard the arguments and evidence concurrently. In circumstances where much of the background to the disputes in both references was shared, and the context of the Head Charter was relevant to the Subcharter and vice versa, it would have been expected that the description of the facts in the Award would share many similarities with that in the Head Award. Where the Tribunal made certain factual findings based on the evidence that went beyond mere description, these were minor and did not affect the overall impression conveyed by the Award to a hypothetical observer. What would have been more persuasive would be the presence of factual issues specific to the Sub-Reference that were not addressed by the Tribunal (see DJP at [76] and Pek Lian Guan at [158]–[160]). The Claimant did not raise any such examples. It is also worth noting that in so far as the impugned findings of the Tribunal related to the Captain’s evidence as set out above, these findings were ultimately immaterial to the resolution of the dispute. As noted by the Tribunal, it was “unnecessary to discuss further the role played by [the parties] in the causation of [the Incident]”, in light of, among other things, its findings on the Clause 44.1 Issue.
[107] Finally, the Claimant alleges that there were terminological errors in the Head Award which were imported into the Award. The Claimant contends that these errors show that the Tribunal simply lifted sentences from the Head Award in drafting the Award. For example, the Tribunal stated at one point that “[t]he Tribunal will revert to the question whether an adequate weather watch was being conducted on [the Owner]”. This was an error because the Tribunal had intended to refer to the Vessel instead of the Owner.
[108] I do not accept this argument and accord little to no weight to this error in my overall assessment of the Award. As noted in Pek Lian Guan (at [157]), while the reproduction of errors in the source material is a relevant factor, it is also important to consider the nature of the error and whether the error was one of substance. In my view, the alleged error was relatively minor and clerical in nature. I accept that the Tribunal had intended to refer to the Vessel instead of the Owner. However, this error made no substantive difference to the Tribunal’s reasoning or the outcome. Further, the Tribunal’s intended meaning was clear, and it could be readily inferred from the context that the Tribunal intended to refer to the Vessel. I also note that the Vessel was named after the Owner, and the similarities in their names likely contributed to the Tribunal inadvertently using the wrong term. A fair-minded and informed observer, having regard to these circumstances and reading the Award in its proper context (DJP at [38]), would have understood what the Tribunal meant and regarded the error as of little significance. It would neither affect the hypothetical observer’s assessment of whether there was apparent bias, nor taint the overall impression conveyed by the Award.
[109] Notably, aside from the above error, the Claimant has not pointed me to any error in the copied material which affected the Tribunal’s reasoning on the material issues between the parties in some way. Had that been the case, those errors would have been a strong indicator of apparent bias. That was the case in DJP, where the errors related to substantive matters, such as the applicable law to certain issues (at [78]). The absence of errors of this nature meant that little weight could be placed on the terminological error relied on by the Claimant in the overall assessment of the Award.
[110] Viewing this section as a whole, while the Tribunal made some factual findings, I find that the extent and nature of the copying would not cause a fair-minded and informed observer to harbour a suspicion that there was prejudgment on the part of the Tribunal in assessing the evidence before it.
The Tribunal’s analysis and determination of the legal issues
[111] The other section of the Award with which the Claimant takes issue is the Tribunal’s analysis and determination of the legal issues. As set out in the Claimant’s table of comparison, the similarities were in respect of three issues: (a) the Clause 44.1 Issue; (b) the Standby Rate Issue; and (c) the late redelivery issue. As noted (see [64]–[65] above), copying in relation to contested issues which are critical to the determination of the parties’ dispute would naturally be given more weight in the assessment of apparent bias. From the perspective of a fair-minded and informed observer, such copied material would point more strongly towards an inference that the Tribunal had approached the issues in the Sub-Reference with a closed mind. I address each issue in turn.
(1) The Clause 44.1 Issue
[112] This issue concerned whether the reduced rate of hire under cl 44.1 of the Subcharter was applicable during the period immediately after the Incident, in circumstances where the FPSO was turret moored at the Port and not at the Site. This was a question of construction of the words in cl 44.1 in the context of the other terms of the Subcharter and the background information reasonably available to the parties.

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The court found no breach of natural justice in the arbitration award being challenged

Laws this judgment relies on

Grounds of decision

Background

The events leading up to the dispute

The conduct of the arbitrations

The issuance of the Award

The parties’ cases

The Claimant’s case

The Defendant’s case

Further submissions

The Claimant’s further submissions

The Defendant’s further submissions

Issues to be determined

The applicable law

The rules of natural justice

The test of reasonable suspicion

The extent and nature of the reproduction or copying

Concurrent arbitrations

The Claimant is not barred from relying on the first aspect of the fair hearing rule

The Award was not rendered in breach of natural justice

There was no apparent bias

The facts as found by the Tribunal in the Sub-Reference

(1) Undisputed background facts

(2) The Tribunal’s findings of fact

The Tribunal’s analysis and determination of the legal issues

(1) The Clause 44.1 Issue